During my time spent in Primary schools, I have been awestruck by the calming effect of television and witnessed it being used in several roles; as reward, as pacifier, as teaching substitute and as time-filler. However, I feel I have not consistently witnessed television being used to its fullest potential; as a rousing teaching tool. I aim therefore, to discuss how and why televisual texts can be used to enhance children’s literacy abilities. I therefore include an except of my recent assignment which discusses some criticisms and advantages of using television in primary schools.
Televisual texts are often used to give children an insight into new worlds or cultures, often described as “a window on the world” (Shaw and Robertson, 1997, p.17). This asset has been criticised in draconian fashion as the “replacement of direct experience by a unified mediated experience can leave people disconnected from reality” (Shaw and Robertson, 1997, p.17). Using televisual texts does not however assume to be a substitute for real-life experience but, like any text, is used to inform and inspire. Televisual texts offer the chance to go beyond our limitations of finance, time-travel and space-travel to portray other worlds and times.
Pedagogically speaking, the biggest criticism directed at using televisual texts in the classroom is the effect it may have on reading print. Winn advocates the importance of books by stating;
…reading engrosses, but does not hypnotise or seduce the reader from his human responsibilities. Reading is a two-way process: the reader can also write; television viewing is a one-way street; the viewer cannot create television images. (Robinson, 1997, p.5 cited Winn, 1985, p.106)
The complexity involved in reading televisual texts suggests children are not ‘seduced’ but are actively engaged in reading television. This would be further avoided by teaching media literacy. Winn’s argument also fails to recognise the potential benefits of children making their own videos in the classrooms, although perhaps the technology wasn’t so accessible at the time of her writing. Nonetheless, drama has long been a feature of the National Curriculum.
Some, like Trelease, see “television as the major stumbling block to literacy” (Robinson, 1997, cited Trelease 1984, p.97). However, television can arouse a great enthusiasm for children to become literate. Television provokes a vast array of emotions more naturally than books, and can consequently be used in conjunction with books to help lower achieving students engage in writing and reading print. As Evans (2004) shows in relation to Harry Potter, the plethora of films and other tie-ins are not stopping children reading the books. Browne (1999) agrees that conversely, television adaptations increase interest in the original source material, which acts “as acknowledgement of the existence of links between different types of texts” (p.75). I feel this demonstrates how televisual texts are bringing literacy up-to-date.
While books are essential to our cultural heritage, which needs to be passed to new generations (Robinson, 1997), at Primary level we need to start by stimulating enthusiasm in literacy. A good way to do this is by using television, as this reflects texts used in real-life. This does have perceived drawbacks. As Himmelweit’s (1958) study suggests, children could choose television in favour of books. Himmelweit’s study showed, that while the amount of time spent reading books fell when children studied televisual texts, it was not consistent for all students and depended on numerous factors. This leads back to my original dissension of the ‘effects debate’ as everyone is unique and brings different experiences to text reading. Browne’s study (1999) for example, revealed that when asked to express preference between books and video, the results were almost even. Televisual texts therefore need to be used in personalised and differentiated ways to appeal to individuals and classes. Their advantage is that they can be read on different levels of understanding by different individuals, which can lead to a vast array of tasks based on the text.
With the large emphasis on phonics in the current curriculum, children do not rely on books as their sole source of reading development. The other main reason for using books is therefore story-telling, a craft at “the heart of the education of young children” (Dunn, 1977, p.156). Televisual texts offer a different narrative experience from books, which may engage a wider range of pupils. They can enable students to creatively “identify how...plot, narrative structure and themes are developed” (National Curriculum, p.53). Televisual texts can add to what Lathey (1999) describes as “a varied reading diet…[which will]…positively influence children’s understanding of complex ideas across the curriculum.” (p.52) Tasks could include allowing children to compare the affordances of televisual texts with written texts (Evans, 2004, p.27), to make posters for the film of the book, a debate on whether the book would make a good movie, (Benton and Fox, 1985, p.70) or to discuss different people’s ideas of how a book should be visualised in a film adaptation. Browne (1999) suggests televisual texts can expand “children’s vicarious experiences through the use of a range of forms of text.” (p.20) By being made aware of a range of texts children can discuss the merits of each. More importantly though is that children’s programmes often have what Robinson (1997) refers to as numerous ‘secondary texts’ such as books or comics. “These secondary texts have a particular mediating role in terms of highlighting awareness of intertextuality” (p.35). Televisual texts can inspire the reading of related texts and therefore meaning is supported in a range of diversified ways.
An important limitation of using televisual texts in schools is that highlighted by Lankshear and Knobel’s study in 1996-97 of Australian schools’ use of television. They found there was a large number of “teachers with little experience of new technologies trying to integrate them efficiently and meaningfully into classroom practices.” (2003, p.67). There are dangers of teachers using televisual texts if they aren’t used critically with structured tasks to develop understanding. This, in part, accounts for my observations of television being used as a pacifier. A possible reason for this is the lack of curriculum support and necessary training which exists for teachers. Currently in the National Curriculum (1999), there is only one reference to use of televisual texts in Literacy, that being an ICT opportunity to study how moving images are used to “convey meaning and emotion” (p.54). Browne (1999) highlights that while OFSTED and policy makers “have not actively criticized the use of television…[they]…have not shown a commitment to use of the medium” (p.25). One reason for the lack of focus of televisual texts in the curriculum (apart from a possible social outcry) could be the difficulty in assessing children’s ability and progression. As Evans (2004) suggests, televisual texts “present robust demands in terms of describing progress in reading” (p.22). Interpreting meaning is subjective and therefore causes challenges in assessing progression. Though improving the reading of televisual texts does not lend itself to assessment, doing so can help to inspire children to progress in assessable areas, such as writing stories, if they are made aware of elements such as “plot development, characterization, time and discourse.” (Robinson, 1997, p.185)
There are, of course, many ways in which televisual texts can aid children’s literacy development. Televisual texts are typically used in primary schools to support foundation subjects (most commonly history in my experience). Being able to read television is therefore an essential skill required by children and highlights the cross-curricular link available with literacy. For example, children could discuss how elements of content, camera angles, scripting etc affect historical viewpoints.
Using televisual texts in school can also help to strengthen ties to home. When watching television at home, carers can interact with children using techniques learnt in the classroom to deepen understanding of texts. This is vital in children’s development as Murphy (1983) found in her research which showed “young children tended to talk more about programmes they had watched with someone else who…had a shared frame of reference” and therefore “the themes of the programmes watched would be extended and built on” (Browne, 1999, p.39 cited Murphy, 1983). By reflecting these experiences at school, teachers can be seen to moving away from “the notion that school is somehow remote from the everyday world” (Wray, 1995, p.66). The hope therefore is that children will engage more because they can make links between the two environments.
A further point is that televisual texts can be beneficial to learners with English as an additional language (EAL). I found that such texts had universal appeal when teaching English to non-natives as students relate to and anticipate watching television much more highly than other texts. Kuppens (2007) undertook an empirical study of media use on vocabulary acquisition amongst Flemish students in their final year of Primary School. The study revealed that those who frequently watched English programmes with subtitles had significantly improved scores on vocabulary tests. Using televisual texts in English classrooms with EAL students could prove difficult due to the varying levels of English abilities that exist. Using subtitles could help to anchor meaning for students and allow them to understand language affected by accent or dialect.
In summary, used effectively, in moderation and with confidence, televisual texts have numerous assets, which Evans (2004) summarises when she writes;
…teachers should have the confidence to…take an interest in children’s out-of-school literacy practices through regular discussion in class…look for opportunities to allow all class members to contribute what they already know about storytelling…allow children to benefit from being experts about aspects of popular culture…structure writing activities which encourage collaborative work and enable the kind of talk that allows children to retell their own stories to each other…emphasise the importance of being critical about the texts children both read and write…tolerate differences in taste and in individuals’ preferred modes of creativity…involve parents and carers as much as possible. (p.163)
The key point for me is that if children enjoy the text they are studying they will benefit from having, what Early (1960) describes as, “conscious delight” (Corcoran and Evans cited Early, 1961, p.10) and will therefore be considered a “good” reader (Corcoran and Evans, 1961, p.10).
References
BROWNE, N. (1999) Young children’s Literacy Development and the Role of Televisual Texts, New York: Falmer Press
Department for Education and Employment (with Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for primary teachers in England. Norwich: HMSO
DUNN, G. (1977) The Box in the Corner; television and the under-fives, London: Macmillan Press
EARLY M.J. (1960) Stages of Growth in literary appreciation. English Journal. 49 pp.161-167 IN CORCORAN, B. and EVANS, E. (Ed.) (1961) Readers, Texts and Teachers, Milton Keynes: Open University Press
EVANS, J. (Ed.) (2004) Literacy Moves On; Using popular culture, new technologies and critical literacy in the primary classroom, London: David Fulton Publishers
HIMMELWEIT, H.T. and OPPENHEIM, A.N. (1958) Television and the Child; An empirical study of the effect of television on the young, Oxford: Oxford University Press
KUPPENS, A. The effects of the use of English media on English vocabulary acquisition: an empirical study with Flemish youngsters, Tijdschrift voor commumicatiewetenschap, 2007, volume 35, issue 4, pp.325-336, available from:
[accessed 1 December 2008]
LANKSHEAR, C and KNOBEL, M (2003) New Literacies; changing knowledge and classroom learning, Berkshire: Open University Press
LATHEY, G (1999) A sense of time and place: literature in the wider curriculum.
In GOODWIN, P. (Ed.) The Literate Classroom, (pp. 52-57) London: David Fulton Publishers
MURPHY, C (1983) Talking about Television: Opportunities for Language Development in Young Children, London: IBA IN BROWNE, N. (1999) Young children’s Literacy Development and the Role of Televisual Texts, New York: Falmer Press
SHAW, J. and ROBERTSON, C. (1997) Participatory Video; A practical guide to using video creatively in group development work, London: Routledge
ROBINSON, M. (1997) Children Reading Print and Television, London: Falmer Press
TRELEASE, J. (1984) The Read-Aloud Handbook, Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin IN ROBINSON, M. (1997) Children Reading Print and Television, London: Falmer Press
WINN, M. (1985) The Plug-in Drug (second edition) Harmondsworth: Viking Penguin IN ROBINSON, M. (1997) Children Reading Print and Television, London: Falmer Press
